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Wednesday, July 31, 2019

Collective Bargaining and Labor Relations Essay

CHAPTER 14 Collective Bargaining and Labor Relations Chapter Summary This chapter provides an overview of private-sector labor-management relations in the United States, with brief attention to public-sector differences and international labor relations. After a model of labor-management relations and a context for current relationships are provided, various aspects of the process of collective bargaining are described. Cooperative forms of labor-management relations are then presented. Finally, an explanation is given for how changes in competitive challenges are influencing labor-management interactions. Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, the student should be able to: 1. Describe what is meant by collective bargaining and labor relations. 2. Identify the labor relations goals of management, labor unions, and society. 3. Explain the legal environment’s impact on labor relations. 4. Describe the major labor-management interactions: organizing, contract negotiations, and contract administration. 5. Describe the new, less adversarial approaches to labor-management relations. 6. Explain how changes in competitive challenges (e.g., product-market competition and globalization) are influencing labor-management interactions. 7. Explain how labor relations in the public sector differ from labor relations in the private sector. Extended Chapter Outline Note: Key terms appear in boldface and are listed in the â€Å"Chapter Vocabulary† section. Opening Vignette: Labor Relations and the Bottom Line The main issue in the 54-day strike by the United Auto Workers (UAW) at two General Motors parts plants was job security and whether GM would invest in plants in the United States or continue its effort to cut U.S. employment and shift production overseas to reduce labor costs. The strike postponed all of GM’s plant operations, which caused annual earnings and market share. GM plans to spin off a new unit, which would eliminate 200,000 of UAW workers from the payroll. Ford is thinking about doing the same thing but has postponed the move because of UAW opposition. I. Introduction—Labor-management relations are complex, and many are in transition as competitive challenges force a realignment of management and worker interests. The need for many U.S. companies to become smaller and more efficient translates into actions (job loss) that are at cross-purposes with the interests of union members. II. The Labor Relations Framework (text Figure 14.1 and TM 14.1) A. John Dunlop suggested a labor relations systems that consists of four elements: 1. An environmental context (technology, market forces, etc.). 2. Participants: employees and their unions, management, and the government. 3. A web of rules (rules of the game) that describe the process by which labor and management interact. 4. Ideology (acceptance of the system and participants). B. Katz and Kochan have presented a model that focuses on the decision-making process and outcomes. 1. At the strategic level, management makes basic choices such as whether to work with its union or develop nonunion operations. 2. These labor and management choices made at the strategic level affect interaction at the second level, the functional level, where contract negotiations occur. 3. These strategic decisions also affect the workplace level, the arena in which the contract is administered. III. Goals and Strategies A. Society—Labor unions’ major benefit to society throughout history has been the balancing of power and the institutionalization of industrial conflict in the least costly way. The National Labor Relations Act (NLRA, 1935) sought to provide a legal framework conducive to collective bargaining. B. Management must decide whether to encourage or discourage the unionization of its employees. Based upon issues of wage cost, flexibility, and labor stability, as well as ideology, management must decide. If management has a union, it has the option of supporting a decertification vote, an election in which employees have a chance to vote out the union. C. Labor unions seek to give workers formal representation in setting the terms and conditions of employment. (See text Table 14.1 for categories of provisions in collective bargaining agreements). IV. Union Structure, Administration, and Membership A. National and international unions are composed of multiple local unions, and most are affiliated with the American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO) (see Table 14.2 in the text for a list). In 1995, three major unions, the UAW, the United Steelworkers, and the International Association of Machinists, announced plans to merge by the year 2000. | | |A related reading from Dushkin’s | |Annual Editions: Human Resources 99/00: | |(â€Å"HR Comes of Age† by Michael Losey | 1. Craft unions are those that organize members of a particular skill or trade, such as electricians or plumbers. Craft unions are likely to be responsible for training programs called apprenticeships. 2. Industrial unions are made up of members who work in any number of positions in a given industry, such as the auto or steel industry. Whereas craft unions may wish to control the number of members, industrial unions wish to maximize the number of members. B. Local unions are frequently responsible for the negotiations of a contract as well as the day-to-day administration of the contract, including the grievance procedure. Typically, an industrial local corresponds to a single manufacturing facility. C. The AFL-CIO is a federation of national unions. It represents labor’s interests in the political process and provides numerous services to its members, in terms of research and education (text Figure 14.2). | | |A related reading from Dushkin’s | |Annual Editions: Human Resources 99/00: | |(â€Å"Labor Deals a New Hand† by Marc Cooper | D. Union security depends upon its ability to ensure a stability of members and dues. Unions typically negotiate a contract clause that defines the relationship it has to employees and that provides for an uninterrupted flow of dues. 1. A checkoff provision is an automatic deduction of union dues from an employee’s paycheck. 2. A closed shop is a union security provision under which a person must be a union member. 3. A union shop requires a person to join the union within a certain length of time after beginning employment. 4. An agency shop is similar to a union shop, but does not require union membership, only that an agency fee be paid. 5. Maintenance of membership requires only that those who join the union remain members through the life of the current contract. 6. Right-to-work laws—As a function of the Taft-Hartley amendment to the NLRA, states may decide to make mandatory union membership (or even dues paying) illegal. E. Union Membership and Bargaining Power—Employers are increasingly resisting unionization. Unions are making new attempts to organize new memberships and to provide new services. Union membership has consistently declined since 1950 and now stands at roughly 10 percent of private-sector employment (text Figure 14.3 and TM 14.2). Reasons for this decline are noted below: 1. Structural Changes in the Economy—These changes include decline in core manufacturing and increase in the service sector. But these changes, according to studies, only account for 25 percent of the overall union membership decline. 2. Increased Employer Resistance—Almost 50 percent of large employers in a survey reported that their most important labor goal was to remain union free. Unions’ ability to organize whole industries has declined, and therefore wages are rarely taken out of competition. Additionally, studies have shown that if a union wins an election, it is frequently the case that managers lose their jobs (see Figure 14.4 for the increase in unfair labor practices filed). | | |Competing by Meeting Stakeholders’ Needs: | |Is Strong Labor Relations Good for Business? | | | |Milwaukee-based Johnson Controls is not looking to cultivate a unionized work force. That is why it endures strikes at its seat| |making factories by UAW workers who were trying to negotiate their first collective bargaining contract with the company. Ford | |has taken a different view because it has begun a strong commitment with the UAW to be a competitive advantage. Ford realizes | |that it is not in the best interests of its employees to accept seats by replacement workers because their relationship with the| |union and respect for the team are too important to them. Finally, Johnson Controls agreed on a contract with the UAW at its | |two plants with help from Ford. | 3. Substitution with HRM—In large nonunion companies, HRM policies and practices may encourage positive employee relations, and therefore union representation is not desired by employees. | | |Competing through Globalization: | |UAW Concedes Defeat at Transplants—for Now | | | |UAW is diverting its attention from the Japanese-owned assembly plants to the German-owned plants because the Japanese are | |turning their backs on the UAW. Transplant operations are tough to implement, but they are continuing to grow in this country | |and employment continues to shrink. Also, the UAW membership is beginning to shrink because it depends on the auto industry for| |its existence. Transplant operations usually offer pay and benefits and the social and political environments don’t support | |unions. BMW and Mercedes-Benz are willing to work with the U.S. auto union because it is easier to organize during economic | |times and they may be able to influence affairs with Germany. BMW pays workers hourly with bonuses as well as using a | |self-directed work team concept. These pay and benefits are attractive to the workers at this company. The union must also | |contend with plant expansions because employees find themselves considering job promotion or at least a move to a more appealing| |work slot. BMW and Mercedes-Benz are expanding both their factories and their payrolls. | 4. Substitution by Government Regulation—Employment laws have been passed that reduce the areas in which unions can make a contribution. 5. Worker Views—The lack of a U.S. history of feudalism and class distinctions has limited the class-consciousness needed to support a strong union movement. 6. Union Actions—Corruption, resistance to obvious economic change, and openness to women and minorities have all hurt the perception of union. V. Legal Framework—Legislation and court decisions that provide the structure within which unions must operate have had an effect upon membership, bargaining power, and the degree to which unions and managements are successful in achieving their goals. The 1935 NLRA enshrined collective bargaining as the preferred mechanism for settling labor-management disputes. Section 7 of the act sets out the rights of employees, including the â€Å"right to self-organization, to form, join, or assist labor organizations, to bargain collectively through representatives of their own choosing, and to engage in other concerted activities for the purpose of collective bargaining.† A. Unfair Labor Practices (ULPs)—Employers: The National Labor Relations Act (1935) prohibits certain activities by both employers and labor unions. Section 8(a) of the NLRA contains ULPs by employers. 1. Employers cannot interfere with, restrain, or coerce employees in exercising their Section 7 rights. 2. Employers cannot dominate or interfere with a union. 3. Employers may not discriminate against an individual for exercising his or her right to join or assist a union. 4. Employers cannot refuse to bargain collectively with a certified union (other examples are given in text Table 14.3). B. Unfair Labor Practices—Labor Unions: These were added by the 1947 Taft-Hartley Act. 1. These ULPs parallel those listed previously. For example, unions may not restrain or coerce employees in the exercise of their Section 7 rights (see Table 14.4 in the text for additional examples). C. Enforcement—The National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) has the primary responsibility for enforcing the NLRA. 1. The NLRB is a five-member board appointed by the president. Additionally, there are 33 regional offices. 2. Only businesses involved in interstate commerce are covered by the NLRA and therefore subject to the NLRB. 3. The NLRB has two major functions: a. To conduct and certify representation elections. b. To prevent ULPs and to adjudicate them. 4. ULP charges are filed at and investigated by the regional offices. 5. The NLRB may defer to the parties’ grievance process instead of holding a hearing. 6. The NLRB can issue a cease-and-desist order to halt a ULP. It may order reinstatement and back pay. The court of appeals can choose to enforce the NLRB’s orders. VI. Union and Management Interactions: Organizing A. Why Do Employees Join Unions?—Is it for wages and benefits? Do unions help increase wages and benefits? B. The Process and Legal Framework of Organizing—An election may be held if at least 30 percent of the employees in the bargaining unit sign authorization cards. A secret ballot election will be held. The union is certified by the NLRB if a simple majority of employees vote for it. 1. A decertification election may be held if no other election has been held within the year or if no contract is in force. 2. The NLRB must define the appropriate bargaining unit. The criterion they use is â€Å"mutuality of interest† of employees. 3. Certain categories of employees cannot be included. C. Organizing Campaigns: Management and Union Strategies and Tactics (see text Tables 14.5 and 14.6 for common campaign issues). 1. Table 14.7 in the text and TM 14.3 list employer strategies, legal and illegal, that are used during organizing campaigns. Additionally, note the significant increase in employer ULPs since the late 1960s. 2. The consequence of breaking the law in this situation is minimal, and discrimination against employees active in union organizing decreases organizing success. 3. The NLRB may set aside the results of an election if the employer has created â€Å"an atmosphere of confusion or fear of reprisals.† 4. Associate union membership provides a person who is not part of a bargaining unit with some of the services a full union member receives (access to insurance, credit cards, etc.). This is a strategy unions are trying in order to increase support. 5. Corporate campaigns seek to bring public, financial, or political pressure on employers during the organizing and negotiating process. Example: William Patterson, corporate affairs director of the Teamsters union, attended the 1996 Time Warner Inc.’s annual meeting, where he unsuccessfully pushed a Teamsters proposal to split the chairman and CEO position into two separate positions. The Teamsters pension funds have assets of $48 billion and actively pursue strategies as stockholders to support their positions. VII. Union and Management Interaction: Contract Negotiation—Bargaining structures, the range of employees and employers that are covered under a given contract, differ, as shown in text Table 14.8. A. The Negotiation Process—Walton and McKersie suggested that negotiations could be broken into four subprocesses: 1. Distributive bargaining occurs when the parties are attempting to divide a fixed economic pie into two parts. What one party gains, the other loses. 2. Integrative bargaining has a win-win focus; it seeks solutions beneficial to both sides. 3. Attitudinal structuring refers to behaviors that modify the relationships between the parties, for example, offering to share information or a meal. 4. Intraorganizational bargaining is the consensus-building and negotiations that go on between members of the same party. B. Management’s preparation for negotiations is critical to labor costs and productivity issues. The following steps are suggested: 1. Establish interdepartmental contract objectives among industrial relations and finance, production, and so on. 2. Review the old contract to focus on provisions needing change. 3. Prepare and analyze data on labor costs, your own and competitors’. Data on grievances, compensation, and benefits must be examined as well. 4. Anticipate union demands by maintaining an awareness of the union perspective. 5. Establish the potential costs of various possible contract provisions. 6. Make preparations for a strike, including possible replacements, security, and supplier and customer. 7. Determine the strategy and logistics for the negotiators. C. Negotiation Stages and Tactics 1. The early stages may include many individuals, as union proposals are presented. 2. During the middle stages, each side makes decisions regarding priorities, theirs and the other parties’. 3. In the final stage, momentum may build toward settlement or pressure may build as an impasse becomes more apparent. More small groups are used to address specific issues. 4. Getting to Yes by Fisher and Ury presents four principles of negotiations: a. Separate the people from the problem. b. Focus on interests, not positions. c. Generate a variety of possibilities before deciding what to do. d. Insist that the results be based on some objective standard. D. Bargaining Power, Impasses, and Impasse Resolution—An important determinant of the outcomes of negotiations is the relative bargaining power of each party. Strikes impose various economic costs on both sides and therefore, in part, determine the power. E. Management’s Willingness to Take a Strike—Willingness is determined by the answers to two questions. 1. Can the company remain profitable over the long run if it agrees to the union’s demands? 2. Can the company continue to operate in the short run despite a strike. 3. The following factors help determine whether management is able to take a strike: a. Product Demand—If it’s strong, there is greater potential loss for management. b. Product Perishability—A strike timed with perishability of a crop results in permanent revenue loss. c. Technology—A capital-intensive firm is less dependent on labor for continued operation. d. Availability of Replacement Workers—(Note that the Clinton Administration issued an executive order that at the time of publication was under an injunctive order. This executive order prohibits federal contractors from permanently replacing striking workers). e. Multiple Production Sites and Staggered Contracts—These permit the shifting of work from a struck site. f. Integrated Facilities—If parts are not available from a struck plant, other facilities may be shut down. g. Lack of Substitutes for the Product—A strike is less costly if customers cannot purchase substitute goods. F. Impasse-Resolution Procedures: Alternatives to Strikes 1. Mediation is provided by the Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service. While a mediator has no formal authority to force a solution, he or she acts as a facilitator for the parties, trying to help find a way to resolve an impasse. 2. A fact finder is most commonly used in the public sector. The fact finder’s job is to investigate and report on the reasons for the dispute and both sides’ positions. 3. Arbitration is a process through which a neutral party makes a final and binding decision. Traditionally, rights arbitration (the interpretation of contract terms) is widely accepted, while interest arbitration (deciding upon the outcome of contract negotiation) is used much less frequently. VIII. Union and Management Interactions: Contract Administration A. The grievance procedure is a process developed to resolve labor management disputes over the interpretation and implementation of the contract. This happens on a day-to-day basis. 1. The WWII War Labor Board first institutionalized the use of a third-party neutral, called an arbitrator (now, the final step in the grievance process). 2. The effectiveness of grievance procedures may be judged on three criteria: a. How well are day-to-day problems resolved? b. How well does the process adjust to changing circumstances? c. In multi-unit contracts, how well does the process handle local contract issues? 3. The duty of fair representation is mandated by the NLRA and requires that all bargaining-unit members, whether union members or not, have equal access to and appropriate representation in the grievance process. An individual union member may sue the union over negligent or discriminatory representation. 4. Most grievance procedures have several steps prior to arbitration, each including representatives from increasingly higher levels of management and the union (Text Table 14.9 and TM 14.4). 5. Arbitration is a final and binding step. The Supreme Court, through three cases known as the Steelworkers’ Trilogy, confirmed the credibility and binding nature of the arbitrator’s decision. 6. Criteria arbitrators use to reach decisions include: a. Did the employee know the rule and the consequences of violating it? b. Was the rule applied in a consistent and predictable way? c. Were the facts collected in a fair and systematic way? d. Did the employee have the right to question the facts and present a defense? e. Does the employee have the right of appeal? f. Is there progressive discipline? g. Are there mitigating circumstances? B. New Labor-Management Strategies 1. There are signs of a transformation from an adversarial approach to a less adversarial and more constructive approach to union-management relations. 2. The transformation includes increasing worker involvement and participation and reorganizing work to increase flexibility. | | |Competing through High-Performance Work Systems: | |Look Who’s Pushing Productivity | | | |Aluminum Co. of America is working to create a high performance work system within its plant by setting up a labor-management | |partnership and spur productivity, protect jobs, and as using unions as consultants. The International Association of | |Machinists is implementing a revolutionary change in the way unions view cooperation with management. The goal is to protect | |workers’ jobs and pay by making their employers more competitive. By developing expertise in new work systems, unions have a | |chance to make themselves valuable to employers battling today’s intense global and domestic competition. Partnerships can also| |dilute the opposition many executives feel toward unions. However, the most willing unions still battle over wages. The IAM | |has opted for a soft-sell approach, marketing itself as a resource for employers. The one payoff is that unions get mo re jobs | |for its members even if it can’t win election battles against nonunion contractors. | 3. Union leaders have frequently resisted such change, fearing an erosion of their influence. 4. In the Electromation case, the NLRB ruled that setting up worker-management committees was a violation of the NLRA, given certain circumstances (see Table 14.10 for a description of what makes teams illegal). 5. Polaroid recently dissolved an employee committee when the U.S. Department of Labor claimed it was a violation. 6. In a third case, the NLRB ruled that worker-management safety committees were illegal because they were dominated by management. 7. These new approaches (with the boundaries of legality) to labor relations may add to an organization’s effectiveness. Table 14.11 in the text and TM 14.5 illustrate the patterns of traditional and transformational approaches. IX. Labor Relations Outcomes A. Strikes—See Table 14.12 in the text for U.S. strike data. Note that strikes occur very infrequently. B. Wages and Benefits—In 1997, private-sector unionized workers received, on average, wages that were 28 percent higher than nonunion counterparts. 1. The union-nonunion gap is most likely overestimated due in part to the ease of organizing higher skilled (therefore more highly paid) workers. The â€Å"union threat† more than likely causes an underestimation of the differences. The net difference is close to 10 percent. 2. Unions influence the way in which pay is given (across-the-board wages on top of occupational wage rates). Promotions are in large part based on seniority. | | |A related reading from Dushkin’s | |Annual Editions: Human Resources 99/00: | |(â€Å"Off the Tenure Track† by Barbara McKenna | C. Productivity 1. Unions are believed to decrease productivity in three ways: a. The union pay advantage motivates management to use more capital per worker, which is an inefficiency. b. Union contracts may limit work load, and so on. c. Strikes and other job actions result in some lost productivity. 2. Unions, alternatively, may increase productivity: a. Unions provide more efficient communication with management, which may reduce turnover. b. The use of seniority decreases the competition between workers. c. The presence of a union may encourage management to tighten up in terms of consistency on work rules, and so on. 3. Overall, studies have concluded that union workers are more productive than nonunion workers although the explanation is not clear. Example: Between 1978 and 1982, Ford lost 47 percent of sales. Today, Ford uses one-half as many workers to make a car as they did during that period. A major factor in Ford’s increased productivity has been the improvement in their labor-management relationship. Management has made a strong effort to increase employee involvement. The Walton Hills plant outside of Cleveland, Ohio, is given as an example of a change from an adversarial relationship to a more cooperative approach that allowed for a change of work rules which kept the plant open. D. Profits and Stock Performance—These may suffer under unionization if costs are raised. Recent studies have shown negative effects on profit and shareholder wealth. These research findings describe the average effects of unions. The consequences of more innovative union-management relationships for profits and stock performance are less clear. X. The International Context—The United States has both the largest number of union members and the lowest unionization rate of any Western European country or Japan (Text Table 14.13). A number of potential explanations exist. A. The growing globalization of markets (EC common market, NAFTA, etc.) will continue to put pressure on labor costs and productivity. Unless U.S. unions can increase productivity or organize new production facilities, union membership may continue to decline. B. The United States differs from Western Europe in the degree of formal worker participation in decision making. Work councils and codetermination are mandated by law in Germany. XI. The Public Sector—During the 1960s and 1970s, unionization in the public sector increased dramatically. By 1997, 37 percent of government employees were covered by a union contract. Strikes are illegal at the federal level and in many states for government workers. Chapter Vocabulary These terms are defined in the â€Å"Extended Chapter Outline† section. Web of Rules Decertification Craft Union Industrial Union Local Union AFL-CIO Checkoff Provision Closed Shop Union Shop Agency Shop Maintenance of Membership Right-to-Work Laws Unfair Labor Practices (ULPs) National Labor Relations Act, 1935 Taft-Hartley Act, 1947 National Labor Relations Board Associate Union Membership Corporate Campaigns Distributive Bargaining Integrative Bargaining Attitudinal Structuring Intraorganizational Bargaining Getting to Yes Mediation Fact Finder Grievance Procedure Arbitration Duty of Fair Representation Electromation Case Discussion Questions 1. Why do employees join unions? Employees join unions because of dissatisfaction with wages, benefits, working conditions, and supervisory method. Employees believe that collective voice (representation) will increase the likelihood of improvement. Unionization provides a better balance of power between management and employees (as a group). 2. What has been the trend in union membership in the United States, and what are the underlying reasons for the trend? Since 1950, union membership has consistently declined as a percentage of employment to approximately 16 percent of all employment. Students may suggest a number of reasons for this (as discussed in the text): decline in the manufacturing â€Å"core† industries, increase in employer union resistance, more frequently adopted progressive HRM policies, increase in employment legislation, and a lack of union adaptation. 3. What are the consequences for management and owners of having a union represent employees? Various consequences may occur depending on the quality of the union-management relationship. Management may find less flexibility, higher wage and benefit costs, higher productivity, and a negative impact on stock price and profitability. 4. What are the general provisions of the National Labor Relations Act, and how does it affect labor-management interactions? The NLRA provides a detailed list of individuals’ rights regarding organizing a union, bargaining a contract, and involvement (or lack thereof) in job (concerted) actions. These rights are referred to as Section 7 rights. Section 8 lists unfair labor practices for both employers and unions. Students could present and discuss each of these. The NLRB (the primary enforcement agency) was also mandated by the act. The NLRA encouraged unionization in order to provide employees with a balance of power vis a vis employers. It affects labor relations by providing a structure for negotiations and conflict resolution. Students could be called upon to provide some specific examples. 5. What are the features of traditional and nontraditional labor relations? What are the potential advantages of the â€Å"new† nontraditional approaches to labor relations? Traditional labor relations can be characterized as adversarial in nature. Negotiations are generally win-lose, and grievances tend to be settled at the third and fourth levels of the process. Nontraditional labor relations include an emphasis on problem-solving and win-win negotiations. Grievances may be more frequently settled informally at the first step. Additionally, employees may be involved in team efforts and participate in decision making. 6. How does the U.S. industrial and labor relations systems compare with systems in other countries such as those in Western Europe? The U.S. industrial relations system has a very low relative union density rate. The union wage premium is higher in the United States. Western European unions have a much higher level of formal worker participation in decision making. Web Exercise Students are asked to visit UAW’s web site to read about and answer questions about their recent mergers. †¢ www.uaw.com End-of-Chapter Case A Floor Under Foreign Factories? The global economic crisis is turning up the heat on companies that use cheap overseas labor, and as a result many companies are taking action like Nike, Inc. Nike lifted wages for its entry-level factory workers in Indonesia by 22 percent to offset that country’s devalued currency and other companies are finding ways to fix these problems without being undercut by rivals. The American Apparel Manufacturers Association (AAMA) introduced a task force to set guidelines for companies to police their factories and suppliers. In addition, the Council on Economic Priorities launched a program toward labor relations by having companies self-regulate even in the face of negative publicity about sweatshops, which could in turn create a floor of basic working conditions evolving around the globe. The plan is to establish the Fair Labor Association (FLA), a private entity to be controlled 50-50 by corporate and human-rights or labor representatives. The FLA would accredit auditors, such as accounting firms, to certify companies as complying with the code of conduct, and inspect about a fifth of a company’s factories for certification. This plan however needs to address wages and unionization rights in order to be successful. These two efforts can pose a problem for companies who still want to deal with sweatshops because human-rights groups will continue to expose the companies that use this technique. Questions 1. From labor’s point of view, what challenges does the â€Å"mobility of capital† create of protecting worker’s rights? From labor’s point of view, the challenges are: decent wage levels, appropriate standard of living, and job security. 2. Should companies be obligated to pay a â€Å"living wage† to workers? What would the likely consequences be for workers? To avoid exploitation by companies, â€Å"living wages† certainly makes sense. It also treats employees as assets rather than cheap labor. 3. If international labor standards are to be enforced, what is the best means? Should enforcement take the form of self-regulation by industry groups or should national governments cooperate in enforcing such standards? If international standards are to be enforced, they should be consistent and similar for the whole international market. This way it will be easier to monitor and control when there are discrepancies or when there is check-ins in the factories. National governments should take a cooperative approach in this arena to make sure things are going as planned and companies are complying with standards. 4. As a consumer, do the conditions under which people work matter to you in choosing a product to buy? Answers will vary. For the most part, most consumers will not think about where the products came from or where they were made when deciding on whether to purchase a certain product. The people that will take this issue into consideration would probably be the human-rights groups or other informed and concerned consumers; however, many people do not understand or are well informed about such issues. Additional Activities Teaching Suggestions Students are frequently quite interested in how labor relations work. Additionally, they may have fairly strong opinions about unions and their effectiveness. Discussions are therefore quite easy to start and keep going. Below are a number of activities that can be added to the text material. One role play is included that allows students to try out the first step in a grievance procedure. The HBR case on the clerical and technical employees organizing campaigns gives students a good chance to think about how HRM policies and practices truly play a role in employee relations. Two of the â€Å"Competing through† boxes have discussion questions listed. Finally, the Saturn end-of-part case is very useful with this chapter, illustrating the benefits of a constructive joint union-management relationship. 1. Competing through Quality Discussion Questions: †¢ Certainly strikes bring about hostile attitudes in many cases. What strategies can management use to defuse these feelings once people are back at work? †¢  · Given the Electromation case, how careful does management need to be in using teams as a quality improvement technique? 2. Competing through Globalization Discussion Questions: †¢ What types of strategies should U.S. organizations use when dealing with labor relations in other countries? What information do they need and with whom should they staff the labor relations positions? †¢ Will unions ever move to have a multinational structure like many organizations do? Why or why not? You may wish to have students do some library or Internet research on this question. 3. An interesting case from the Harvard Business School is listed below with questions for discussion. This may be assigned to groups as a written case analysis or used in class to discuss and illustrate a number of points regarding why employees join unions and what sort of union organizing techniques are used. Case 9-490-027: Clerical and Technical Workers Organizing Campaign at Harvard University (A) Case 9-490-081: Part (B) Teaching Note (5-490-083) Supplement (9-490-081) This case describes a successful organizing drive among clerical and technical workers at Harvard. The union (HUCTW) relied on unusual strategies: espousing cooperation, avoiding specific demands, emphasizing the need for worker voice, and making use of volunteer organizers. Discussion Questions 1. Should Harvard oppose unionization? 2. How would a union affect the university’s â€Å"business† needs? 3. How effective were Harvard’s campaign tactics? 4. What did you learn about managing human resources from reading and analyzing this case? 5. The Saturn case presents a labor-management relationship (as well as a plant design process) designed from the ground up as a cooperative, joint interaction. After covering this chapter, students should be well prepared to discuss the demands placed upon both the union and management in a situation like Saturn’s. The case provides some focus on the political riskiness of a cooperative relationship for the union-elected officials. In the Saturn case discussion, it would be useful to note the difference between beginning a new operation in which the union-management relationship is based on â€Å"jointness† and trust and the effort needed to change a relationship in which trust has not existed in the past. 6. Assign the following article from The Wall Street Journal (May 24, 1993): â€Å"Why Ms. Brickman of Sarah Lawrence Now Rallies Workers† by Kevin Salwen. Note also that as part of the AFL-CIO’s new â€Å"union summer program,† more than 1,600 young people, mostly college students, have applied for pro-labor candidates and help organize workers. Ask the students to discuss this quote: â€Å"Every successful social movement in history, including the civil rights movement, was run by young people. If the labor movement is going to succeed and grow again, they need to be a big part of it.† 7. A role play is useful in talking about the grievance procedure. Using the following scenario, assign the roles of union steward, supervisor, employee, and observer to students in groups of four. Give them 20 minutes to try to resolve the issue informally, but if they are unable to, have them â€Å"write it up† as a grievance. Those groups that do resolve it may hand in their resolution. Observers should provide feedback to the students in the other roles on interpersonal skills, empathy, listening, idea generation to resolve the issue, and so on. It is Friday afternoon in the special-order fabrications section of the Caseville plant. As the supervisor Mary Reed is checking work orders, she notes that there is one order that has not been handled, and delivery is due the next week. Clearly, Mary is going to have to find several people to work a second shift on overtime. Under the Caseville-Local 484 contract, overtime must be distributed by seniority. The supervisor quickly pulls her seniority list from the file and, beginning at the top, walks around her area talking to the employees and asking about their interest in overtime immediately after the current shift ends. After talking with five men, Mary has only one who will work. Quitting time is five minutes away, and the whereabouts of Brooke Youngblood is not known (Brooke is next on the list). In desperation, Stevens asks three employees standing at their benches who are about to leave. Two of these people agree to work (both are junior to Brooke). That afternoon and evenin g the order is completed. Monday morning, upon arrival, Brooke is greeted and asked about his weekend. It turns out that he had taken a trip into the city with his son for a major league baseball game Friday afternoon. The tickets had been purchased a month before, and the special event was a birthday present. In the course of the discussion, Brooke learns about the overtime and realizes he hadn’t been asked about it by his supervisor. He immediately calls his union steward, Carry Stevens. A discussion ensues.

Effect of Csr Activities on Sales Essay

Reasons for this can be multinational corporations’ increasing influence on world economy as well as scandals revealing horrible working conditions in different industries. In spite of the fact that the demand for CSR is growing, there has always been critics. The most influential critic is Noble Prize winner Milton Friedman, who claims CSR to be a waste of stockholders’ money. However, several articles claim, opposite Friedman, that CSR rather increases a company’s financial performance in the long run. These claims have made us curious about in what way CSR is related to a company’s performance. Moreover, it has led to us wanting to find out how CSR can influence customer perceptions on a product or service offering. Conclusions –All the initiatives gave a positive influence on the respondents’ perceptions, but the ones resulting in the most positive changes of the perceptions and willingness to buy were social responsible business practises, cause-related marketing and corporate philanthropy, which are initiatives where the company are doing the largest effort instead of just encouraging others to make an effort. The respondents answered that they trust the companies’ information about CSR to some extent, but also think a third party should scrutinise the companies’ activities and inform. The most favourable channel for CSR information was from environmental organisations, government organisations and the third party web media. Therefore it seems like the respondents value that the companies provide information, but are not too forward and pushing the information on them by for example advertisements. Keywords : CSR – Corporate Social Responsibility, Cause promotion, Cause-related marketing, Corporate social marketing, Corporate philanthropy, Community volunteering, Social responsible business practices. Introduction: CSR is today a frequently used concept, as companies to a larger extent are held accountable for what is happening in the society. The company should also inform the stakeholders about their CSR activities in an appropriate way, in order to capitalise from all possible benefits. In order to make a trustworthy impression and gain the most benefits, the choice of CSR activity and way of communication is crucial for the company, and therefore the perceptions of the consumers are very important to know more about and understand. In the last decade tendencies towards a more social aware community have been strong. In itself these trends are nothing that is particularly new. People have always preached for problems like public health, wildlife protection, prevention of child labor etc. What is different now is that companies to a larger extent are held accountable for what is happening in our society. Companies that engage in CSR activities are likely to have different motives for doing so. Many researches claim that corporate social responsibility originally consists of activities that a company performs out of commitment and duty. However, there are also commercial motives for CSR activities. For example CSR activities may result in advantages when it comes to receiving funding, recruiting new employees, cost reductions etc. To capitalise from all possible advantages it is crucial for the company to communicate their CSR work in an appropriate way. Theoretical Framework: Types of CSR Activities: a) Cause promotion Cause promotion is often done in the way that the company provide funds, contribute financially or with any other resource, with the objective to increase awareness, support fundraising or participation, or to recruit volunteers for a specific cause. In this initiative persuasive communications are important, to create concern and to persuade people to contribute or participate to support the cause. In successful campaigns use of motivating messages and the choice of effective media channels are crucial. They also make use of publicity, printed materials, special events, web sites, advertising, featuring the logo and key message of the company and those who represent the cause. Further methods are employee involvement, messages on product labelling and to provide store space for promotions. Many of the potential benefits are marketing related, like strengthened brand positioning and preference, increased traffic and consumer loyalty.

Tuesday, July 30, 2019

How Far Was the Provisional Government Responsible?

S13hsm 2 Joe Pendlebury How far was the Provisional Government responsible for its own downfall? There are many factors which were responsible for the Provisional government’s downfall. Some are more important than others because they had more impact on the downfall. The War, the distribution of land and the people in the provisional government all contributed to the downfall of the provisional government. They each had different amounts of impact. The Provisional Government had a programme initially designed to create a better Russia.The main aims of this government were to abolish Tsarist governors and hold elections based on a universal adult franchise. However, the members that made up the provisional government were from the Duma of masters, priests, and lackeys. This meant that, because of the weighted elections, it was not representative of the population, and therefore lacked legitimacy. They had little support from the working class because it was dominated by the Lib erals; members of the elite.The government also lacked control because of the dual authority with the Petrograd Soviet, who issued the Soviet Order Number One which directly challenged the Provisional Government. All ideas had to be agreed by the Petrograd Soviet, specifically to do with the military. In the Second Provisional government (the first coalition), the composition had become more left-wing, with Kerensky (a social Revolutionary) as president. Although this could be argued that this would have happened naturally, because the majority of the population were peasants, it definitely contributed to the downfall of the Provisional Government.The decision to stay in the war was largely responsible for the Provisional Governments downfall. Arguably they were restricted and had to stay in the war, due to having to keep strong relations with Britain and France that funding was continued, and making sure Russia was defended. However this caused huge shortages in coal and food which led to unemployment and discontent. Furthermore after deciding to lead a defensive war, the Brusilov offensive occurred in June. This was an offensive attack launched against Austria-Hungry. Due to this loss, many men died.This resulted in wide spread desertion, which increased when the Bolsheviks encouraged men to stop fighting. Following the desertions and the failure, this caused mass uprising and seizure of land in the countryside. This was the PG’s downfall as they lost the support of the largest social group in Russia. The land issue was a key feature in the downfall of the provisional government. Their decision to defer solving this problem until a constitutional assembly had been elected this left the peasants extremely dissatisfied and they continued to seize land.The provisional government’s hands were tied because they did not have a loyal military force to send in and stop the peasants taking land. This was worsened by the fact that most of the soldiers se nt to disrupt this from happening were peasant conscripts who also took land for themselves. A further problem was desertion from the front as more peasants went back to secure land for them before it was too late. Due to so much land being procured by the peasants farming and crops took a back seat, eventually creating food shortages creating even more pressure upon the provisional government to do something about the land situation.However they didn’t, creating more hatred towards them making revolution more of a threat. The Bolsheviks were responsible for the provisional Governments own downfall to a small extent. For example during the Kornilov affair, the provisional government were left with little other choice than trusting and arming the Bolsheviks. This decision contributes to their downfall as the Bolsheviks had hidden ulterior motives (they intended to use their government funded arms to overthrow the government itself in the future. However, the Bolsheviks did oth er things that were out of the governments control and that lead to its downfall.This includes the growing influence they gained within the Soviets of Russia. This was created by volunteering themselves for the unpopular jobs that nobody else wanted to do, this gave them a disproportionate influence meaning there influence was greater than their numbers and audience would have suggested. There influence was also helped by the irregular attendance of other parties. Because of the way the soviet system was set up and the lack of control this gave the provisional government, they had little control over what the Bolsheviks did.And even though the government helped them by rewarding them with the â€Å"Red Guard† this was only the final straw of an uprising they could not stop. Overall I think the government was responsible for its own downfall considering the decisions and actions it took. They decided to stay in the war and change their plan. They did have to stay in the war du e to many reasons but it was their choice. But also they made an agreement with the Petrograd Soviet so they actually didn't actually have much power so it is really the provisional governments own fault for there downfall.

Monday, July 29, 2019

Music research paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Music - Research Paper Example As of yet, K Pop musicians have held a plethora of successful concerts internationally in major cities such as Chicago, New York, Paris, London, and Barcelona. With their unique style and multiple talents, two K Pop stars including Psy and the Rain have swept international audiences with their hit music and performances in films. The famous K Pop singer, Psy shot to popularity in 2012 when his single Gangnam Style went hit with over one billion views on YouTube within a few weeks of its release. His single went viral over YouTube reaching millions of international fans with approximately two billion views as of yet (Gruger, n.pag. (a)). Subsequently, his signature dance move to the lyric â€Å"Oppa Gangnam Style† became so popular that sports players, politicians such as Mitt Romney (Perera, n.pag.), and TV hosts could not get away from maneuvering to the renditions of Gangnam Style. The song made new records of worldwide popularity and engagement with international audiences which even earned Psy’s lyric, ‘Oppa Gangnam Style’, an entry in The Yale Book of Quotations as being one of the most famous quotes of the year 2012. Psy’s music video was a huge success all over the world. With its dancy music, hilarious yet interesting dance moves, funny lyrics, and catchy video, the single made it to the top of the charts as a dominant musical entry. The immense popularity of the song and its video reached worldwide audiences taking Psy to new heights of fame and recognition. Another popular K Pop star, Rain is an actor, singer, producer, and model. The Rain is also known as the ‘King of K Pop’ due to his popular music and his influence outside South Korea. The Rain starred in a 2009 movie called Ninja Assassin where he performed a physical role of the assassin belonging to the Ozunu ninja clan. For his role in the movie Ninja Assassin, the Rain even won an MTV Movie

Sunday, July 28, 2019

The Root Crop Industry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Root Crop Industry - Essay Example Statistics show that around half the world’s production of root crops is consumed as food. These statistics vary from one country to another. Our ancestors found the first root crops when they were still hunter gatherers, and history is witness to the fact that what these first cultivators found in the wild was what they first experimented with as cultivators. The earliest agricultural system in parts of Africa was based on root crops. Recent studies have shown that the ancient Mayan civilization grew crops such as sweet potato, yams and cassava; so too did some African tribes like the Bantu. Early civilizations in Asia, Africa and South America seem to have been the first to sow and harvest root crops that had previously been gathered in the wild. â€Å"A healthy diet is the cornerstone of a healthy lifestyle,† says Dr.Weil. Root vegetables have been described as â€Å"some of the most overlooked and underappreciated foodstuffs ......nutritional storehouses, hidden treasures worthy of notice† ( Dr. Weil, drweil.com, n.d.) A large proportion of the world’s food supply today consists of root crops that are also used as animal feed. Industrial products such as starch and distilled spirits as well as a wide range of other minor products also are made from root crops. Around half of the supply of root crops grown globally is used for human consumption. This utilization pattern varies from one country to another, with developing nations using a greater percentage of these crops for food, while the developed nations use a larger percentage for animal feed and industrial use. Agro climatic factors define where different root crops are produced. Potatoes seem to have first been cultivated in the Andes, but today are grown at lower altitudes and in warmer climates. Sweet potatoes too are grown in a wide variety of climates and altitudes, but yams are mostly grown in Africa. The fact that these root crops that were cultivated by our early ancestors survive as an

Saturday, July 27, 2019

Gangnam style Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Gangnam style - Essay Example It is famous for its wealthy inhabitants. During the last half century, the town has proliferated to become a hub of the wealthiest upper class in South Korea. The Gangnam style in the song is denoting this elite wealth culture and the lifestyle that has sprung around that area. Gangnam Style, was done by Park Jae-sang, commonly known as PJS, and went viral on YouTube and other media. In his music Gangnam dancing style, PJS talks about people’s behavior in reference to the Gangnam area. â€Å"The people of the Gangnam are so good looking as they can afford to have plastic surgery and have a luxurious lifestyle." Money is not a problem in the Gangnam estate. The video brings out a contrast to the lifestyle that is found in the city. Park Jae-sang refers himself as Gangnam that is a contrast to the lifestyle that the residents live. The meaning rather mocks the culture and attitude of such people who live in Gangnam do not talk about their lives much, only those who dreams to be in such a lifestyle keep talking about it in the streets. The wannabe and posers put take a resemblance of the Gangnam style. The dance had hit billboards in major countries through the social media and has much influence on the culture of the world in the year 2012. The song topped in the song billboard in a couple of countries namely, USA, Italy, Japan, Australia, China to mention but a few. The sensational song has managed to receive the world recognition through You Tube among other social media. In the first day of release got over-whelming 500,000 views that made it You Tube most popular song in the world. â€Å"Gangnam Style, this little video has received close to a billion times view and is now rated as the most viewed and liked YouTube Viral video ever. It might not seem like something important fact to many who are unaware of the bigger and wider trend that

Friday, July 26, 2019

The American Experience from 1865 to 1945 Essay

The American Experience from 1865 to 1945 - Essay Example The analysis looks at the Spanish-American war which took place in 1898. This war is said to have been started by Cuba following its urge for independence. The key figures include President Woodrow Wilson and Charles Evans (who was the secretary of state). An event like the Swedish emigration to North America between 1840 and 1920 is well captured by the author. The real cause for this emigration was poverty and Swedish were trying to run away from it. The highest number migrated in 1869 and1887. He approximates the number of Swedish to be about half a million, most of who settled in Canada, Australia and Brazil. They left Sweden by boat from Gothenburg and traveled to Liverpool from where they were ferried to New York and Boston by the emigrant ships. One of the authors Vilhelm Moberg (1898-1973) who even wrote a book titled the emigrants. It is also features Buchanan's (1856) whose art compromise skills led him to be the only president in America to be from Pennsylvanian. He ruled for four years and declined to take another term. He was succeeded by Abraham Lincoln. It was the informal agreements between Buchanan himself and South Carolina that kept was on hold. All these writings by this author acts as an eye opener to the reader giving him/her a chance to clearly examine rationalization and the inner thoughts as portrayed by the author. This can help in documenting the America's history and the changing spheres that can perpetually change America's history and its connection with the today's world1. This paper incorporates analysis from the book titled The Colonial Period of American History that was authored by Andrews and published in 1930. Materials from this book are meant to appear as confirmation to the author's information so as not to come up with conflicting history regarding the America's experience. The book concentrates more on the events that took place between 1865 and 1918, thus covering up to the first world war.America's Experience World War 11 For many years the United States has been largely involved in the world war. During the year 1865 America was involved in the civil war with its principal problems being: - Preservations of Monroe Doctrine integrity - The doctrine were a treaty that pledged signatories to a joint control of any future, unfortified isthmian canal dominion by one of the involved parties. Preventing the southern independence recognition by France and Britain. Holding those powers to proper

Research paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words - 1

Research Paper Example Android is considered a game changer in the mobile developer community since it is well placed to address the growing needs of the mobile marketplace. Introduction According to Haseman, Android is a Linux based operating system and a platform for which applications are developed. The Android operating system was originally designed and produced for touch screen mobile devices such as tablets and smart phones (2008). The android was originally released in 2007 and sold the first Android powered device in 2008. Android is open source software released under the Apache license and therefore the Android software can be freely modified and distributed by developers and device manufacturers. Being that android is a platform for application development in addition to the fact that it is open source, it has a large community of application developers presenting unlimited applications for the mobile devices running on android. The ease of application development on android platform has presen ted a variety of applications for mobile device customization which in turn has seen android as the most popularly used mobile platforms especially for Smartphones. The Android operating system has grown to be used on game console and television applications despite the fact that it was originally designed for tablets and mobile phones. The applications developed on android extend the functionality of the mobile devices (Haseman, 2008). Interface The user interface provides the display and the user control or command of the Android operating system. It gives the user the power to interact with the operating system directly by use of touch manipulation objects on the display. The display is supported by the fluid enabled interface designed to aid the interaction process between the user and the Operating System. The interface is fully-touch screen enabled with operations such as flicking your finger across the screen to flip to the next page of items. The user interface comes in seve ral shapes and sizes. The user interface is also enabled by simple configuration applications that can make the text on screen appear bigger and clearer such as text size and screen size configuration preferences(Udell, 2009). Android Operating System user interface has a home-screen that hosts the operational application icons and widgets. Icons are graphic symbols that take up the commands to open up the application while widget displays the graphic user interface directly on the screen. The operational application icons and widgets displayed on the home-screen are known as Android views that include Context menu, Options menu, Digital clock and Web view. These applications offer additional options and links to different pages that are not directly visible on the main Menu driven interface on the home-screen. The menu applications also play a vital role in displaying information directing the user on what command it initiates. In addition, the Menu driven interface gives notice on notification messages (Hoog & McCash, 2011). Processes Process management is a distinctive operating system that uses several complex data structures and algorithms to process data on Android devices. Â  Android uses this data processing technique in control

Thursday, July 25, 2019

Reflective skills essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Reflective skills - Essay Example The basic thing needed to nourish the therapist-client relationship is respect. The therapist must respect the patient in whatever the state he is in. He should be honest and straightforward. He must also take patient’s informed consent about the treatment. Informed Consent is about having the capable patient take part in making decisions about his healthcare and treatment process (Wear, 1992). The therapist has to guide some ethical principles in his practice to be able to hold the client. Rainbow (2002) describes that these ethical principles include: Physicians should stick to their responsibilities when they are facing a dilemma in making ethical decisions. This will help them to make consistent decisions while adhering to their ethical obligations. All of the above mentioned principles and theories help in developing strong bond between the therapist and the client. When the client knows that the therapist will protect his privacy, respect his autonomy, and will make ethical decisions about his health, he will naturally want to share all his health related problems with the therapist and will want to participate in the decision-making process. This fastens up the recovery process and guarantees patient compliance with the treatment. Transference is a therapeutic process in which the patient transfers his feelings to the therapist, the feelings which arise because of inappropriate relationships in the past and which can help the therapist in understanding the patient’s present condition (Bauer, 1994). It is known as a very important part of psychoanalytic treatment in which the patient transfers his attitudes and feelings linked with some significant others, to the therapist, and the patient in turn gains an insight into the present distortions in his life by looking at past disturbances in the relationships which may have remained hidden or inactive in his memory. In the therapy session, I had to deal

Wednesday, July 24, 2019

The effects of Interior Design and staff Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4750 words

The effects of Interior Design and staff - Essay Example Ulrich (2010, p.97) argues that the failure of hard facilities are attributed to the fact that they are stressful and does not satisfy the psychological needs of patients, staff and visitors. Research indicates that poor design impacts negatively on the well-being of patients. In addition, poor designs can affect the psychological pointers of wellness negatively. In this regard, research has associated poor design of the interior medical environment to a number of negative consequences for patients such as delirium, anxiety, high blood pressure, and increased intake of pain drugs. Therefore, the interior design has a responsibility to produce health facilities that enhances functional efficiency, marking, codes and reduces cost. In addition, designers should also aim at promoting the wellness of patients by designing physical environment that is psychologically supportive. Ulrich (2010, p.97) argues that a psychologically supportive environment promote patients’ coping with il lnesses such as stress and depression. In addition, a supporting environment impacts greatly on the healing effects of drugs, which enhances the recovery process. Poor designs, on the other hand, does not promote patients’ coping with stress since it is associated with stressors that only worsen the patient’s condition. Poor designs have also been found to have effects that negatively impacts on the healing process. Based on the above comments, this paper will examine the extent to which the interior design on medical environment stimulates patients and staff. Why a good healthcare environment is important for patients Edge (2003, p.2) argues that environmental factors influences how people behave in a given building setting. As a result, dating back to 1960s, architects have strongly believed that if someone can manipulate his environment to enhance physical well-being, then he or she can influence it to promote the behavior required and do away with the negative cons equences. The concept has since played a major role in the design of hospitals facilities all over the world. Naturally, when someone is not comfortable with the physical environment where he or she lives, the person can solve the problem by either finding the ways of adapting to the same environment or simply departing the area. However, this does not apply in hospital facilities. This is attributed to the fact that patients have no control of designing to change the environment or leave altogether because they are held captive in their surroundings. As a result, the responsibility of enhancing the wellness of patients on the hospital is placed upon the designers according to Malkin (1992, p.16). Edge (2003, p. 3) notes that designers usually face a huge challenge in coming up with a good interior design that enhances the well-being of patients. Patients usually come to the hospital suffering from a given ailment. As such, it is imperative that the interior design of the hospital f acilities positively influences the psychological state of patients and promote their recovery process. â€Å"Good quality design will contribute to providing an environment in which patients will be safe and secure. Well-designed buildings, capable

Tuesday, July 23, 2019

Paradoxes of Whistle-blowing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Paradoxes of Whistle-blowing - Essay Example Third, the act is required, whether or not it is moral to do so or not. The act needs to be performed because of a rational non-moral reason. In this context, whistle-blowing is morally problematic because there is confusion on whether whistle-blowing should be something morally permissible, morally required or at the other extreme morally wrong. Whistle-blowing involves revealing information that ordinarily, would not be revealed, because one is entrusted with that information. By this definition, the police officer, the criminal informant or the clerk who happens upon evidence of wrongdoing in another department, are not whistle-blowers because they have not been entrusted with the information, even if they were while working under false pretences. According to the standard theory, whistle-blowing is permissible when an organization's product or policy is harmful to the public; when the prospective whistle-blower has identified the harm, reported such to a superior, and the superior does nothing about it; the prospective whistle-blower has done everything possible within the organization to call attention to the identified harm. Additionally, according to the standard theory, whistle-blowing is required when the prospective whistle-blower has evidence that will convince an impartial observer that the threat to public safety is correct; and when the prospective whistle-blower is convinced that revealing the threat will be able to prevent harm at reasonable cost. Generally speaking, there appears to be nothing wrong with the standard theory, except S1 which places the burden of identification of the gravity of the threat is the judgment of the whistle-blower, as well as S5, which again puts the burden of judgment regarding reasonable cost on the shoulders of the whistle-blower.. 3. Explain the three paradoxes that Davis claims the standard theory gives rise to. If you were a defender of the standard theory, how might you respond to Davis' arguments According to Davis, the first paradox that has arisen from the standard theory is the paradox of burden. The standard theory presupposes that whistle-blowers are minimally decent individuals who blow the whistle after complying with five justifications. Actually, whistle-blowers are exemplary individuals who risk financial security and personal relations for the good of the public. The second paradox is the paradox of missing harm. According to the standard theory, the harm that justifies whistle-blowing needs to be serious and considerable in magnitude. Injustice, deception and waste are not justifications for whistle-blowing under the standard theory. The third paradox is the paradox of failure. The standard theory requires that one of the justifications for whistle-blowing is the prevention of harm. Paradoxically, if harm cannot be prevented by whistle-blowing, then it is not justified. In defense of the standard theory, the paradox of burden is the natural result for the whistle-blower. The standard theory works on the premise that organizations, unless those which are criminal, would not deliberately seek to produce harmful products for the general public. So only in extreme cases would there be a need for whistle-blowers. Relaxing the rules would only encourage unfounded complaints and back-stabbing

Monday, July 22, 2019

Technology and Innovation Essay Example for Free

Technology and Innovation Essay According to Sakiki Fukada-Parr the prominent author of a UNDP report on technology and development suggests, electronic communications help make societies less hierarchical. He quotes no one can see the cut of your suit, and no secretary blocks your path to the ministers office. Junior employees who would never have dared knock on a chief executives door might send him an idea electronically. (The Economist (US), Nov 10, 2001) Cetron Davies, [2001]) believes businesses have come to rely on technology for increased production efficiency and more appropriate communication operations. Competition is mounting in the business world and organisations must take advantage of the latest technology in order to improve their business functions. Organisations must change the way they act, think and operate internally as their work environment becomes more technologically advanced. All businesses across the world have sufficient communications tools that make global management much easier. Devices such as e-mail, fax machines and satellite communication are all tools that enable managers to communicate at an extremely high pace. (Heiko [1989]) suggests that technology implementation will be heavily influenced by cultural factors, such as technological advances between foreign operations. He observed that Just-In-Time approach of inventory management has been favourably received in Japan, leading to considerable savings. However, this is not the case in other countries and believes this is down to unique cultural conditions in Japan such as concern for space, and a deep group oriented devotion to duty, all of which match the requirements of (JIT ) techniques. In conclusion (Heiko [1989]) states that the Japanese culture can provide a environment where JIT techniques can expand and develop. (Klien and Ralls, 1995) adds that the more complexity facing an organisation, concerning culture, the less willing the orgainisation is to implement technology on a wider basis. This may lead to greater opportunity costs by not adopting the latest techniques across various units, for fear that the results are uneven. Although global firms can benefit from global efficiencies, it is not always appropriate where technology is concerned. Nike for instance has a plant in Indonesia where labour costs are low and have access to better distribution channels and production costs are also low. (Samli, [1985]) argues that although there are benefits, consideration has to be given to the fact that labour skills are extremely low and training of employees will have to occur in order for them to do their job. On the other hand (Dougherty [1995]) suggests that the exchange of technology across national borders is essential. Ford not only transfers technology to foreign countries but also tries to learn from locals. The exchange of expertise and information among people from around the world assists in broadening perspectives and also assists research and development in transferring information between divisions successfully. This increases the key mass in RD so that organisations are able to attract better people. Innovation enables organisation to improve the quality of their output, enter new markets, try out new technologies and develop alternative applications for existing product categories. For organisations must adapt to changing competition, markets, and technologies.(Dougherty [1996]) (Venkatraman, MacMillian and McGrath, [1992]; Shane [1995]) suggest that innovation within global organisations may be hampered by cultural barriers. It is important not to block innovation by organisational rules or routines. Based on findings from Hofstedes cultural indices they suggest that cultural barriers may slow down transfer from one unit to another in a multinational organisation (Cox,[1991] argues that using cultural heterogeneity leads to greater innovation and more efficient marketing strategies for the different types of customers worldwide. He also suggests that because employees come from different backgrounds different perspectives are achieved, therefore creating improvements. (Mejia Palich, [1997]) also argue that heterogeneous teams function better than homogenous ones because of cultural differences learning experiences. On the other hand (Keller and Chinta [1990]; Snodgrass and Sekaran [1989]) argue that expertise and technical know-how are more difficult to develop when differences in cultural backgrounds exist. They state that this plays a major role in the transfer of technology between business units. [Empirical research by Davidson and McFetridge [1985]) also supports this belief that cultural relatedness enhances the flow of technological know how and the sharing among business units of a global organisation. MARKETING According to (Barlett [1996]; Beamish, Killing, Lecraw and Morrison [1994]) they are all in agreement that distinct consumer preferences will emerge due to cultural differences. This is expected to lead to the requirement of customisation of the marketing mix and product strategies. This suggests that production in one country may not suit production in another. High Uncertainty Avoidance Countries like to buy reliable, predictable goods. In addition to this, although there are divisions (Takeuchei Porter 1986) believe culturally related countries such as (America Canada) can more successfully share market activities and knowledge than those in culturally unrelated countries such as (America India). With the capacity to cross-sell products in culturally related markets, which reduces information gathering expenses and the uncertainty linked with targeting markets that are totally unrelated. Culturally related countries may find it beneficial to share knowledge regarding market research, sales forces service networks, distribution and advertising, therefore lowering costs. However, (Alder, P [1987]) argues that this kind of sharing is a lot more demanding, suggesting that the differences are not just language but that it is a matter of values, mind set and market reactions Take for instance the advertising campaign concerning the Marlboro Man. This campaign suited America as society is seen as individualist according to (Hofstede 1984). On the other hand, this campaign was a failure in Columbia because society is seen as Collectivist This now leads on the issue of marketing standardisation. This issue has been defined by (Banerjee, [1994]} as the determination of common communication objectives and budget whereas (Wills Ryan, [1997]) includes in there definition creative and media decisions involving the whole corporation. The issues of marketing standardisation and global marketing have usually been considered in terms of the reliability of the marketing mix elements for a company that enters numerous international markets. Since the 1960s, standardisation of international marketing strategy has been the focus of many studies (Elinder, [1961]; Buzzell, 1968; Jain, [1989]), It is still unclear however, whether it is done for the savings linked with standardisation or for the maximisation of the firms products, but the underlying principle of standardisation is to maintain a global image. Rau Preble, [1987] has carried out considerable research on this topic. Multinational Corporations are faced with difficulties when deciding standardisation of advertising across different countries. (Boddewyn, [1991]; Jain, [1989]). According to (Solberg, [2000]) there are two important organisational factors that relate to the degree of standardisation in international markets. Firstly, market knowledge at the level of headquarters (HQ) of local market conditions and secondly HQs control of subsidiaries i.e. (Influence on their marketing decisions). In addition (Martenson, [1987]; Rau Preble, [1987]; Tai Wong, [1998] suggested that MNCs needed to have a certain degree of control over their subsidiaries in order to implement decisions. (Hite Frazer, [1998]) state that, MNCs with a well-known and global image i.e. (Coca cola) tend to apply more control over their subsidiaries in order to maintain the image of the corporation or product (Hill James, [1990]) especially if perceptions of consumers are similar across countries. (Britt, [1974], Jain, [1989]). However, in the case of Matsushita in the electronic industry this was not the case as each subsidiary had a separate identity, which resulted in major success. This then leads on to market development. (Jain, [1989]; Duncan Ramaprasad, [1995]) suggest if similar levels of market development are achieved in both home and host countries marketing standardisation would favour MNCs. However, this would depend on the competitive positions in home and host countries of the MNC. Higher degrees of marketing standardisation may be adapted (Jain, [1989]; Henzler Rall, [1986]) if similarities prevailed in the competitive context that would allow HQs to make easier decisio ns regarding competition and to enhance control over the subsidiary and to adopt more beneficial standardisation strategies. (Doz and Prahalad, [1984] Michell Bright, [1995]). STAFFING AND TRAINING As multinational firms globalise they must learn to co-ordinate efforts among an increasingly culturally diverse workforce and environment. Nowadays people tend to be very defensive of their cultural identity and caution by others has to be taken so that insult is not caused. Through the years success of Japanese organisations global strategies has encouraged American firms. Although many point out the advantages, cultural diversity may leads to conflict, misunderstanding and lack of cohesion. Organisations are becoming more alert of the importance of diversity to their business activities and acknowledge that by recruiting, promoting and training a diverse range of individuals in the long-term are a major asset to the organisation in reaching out to their customers. (Tung, [1993]) states that cross cultural training process, helps in the development of building relations between individuals or groups, especially individuals/groups with diverse cultural backgrounds. (Welch [1998]) defines cultural training as any form of guided experience helping people to live and work more contentedly in another culture. Such training encourages understanding about differences and acceptance of the multicultural work environment and helps create and retain effective work teams and expertise in dealing with multicultural management (Hartenian, [2000]) describes the multi-cultural workforce as a workforce that excludes no one, from top-level management to low-level employees. He sees the multi-cultural workforce has one of the main opportunities for an organisation. Take for instance the IBM perspective. IBM have established research labs around the world because the issue of a globally diverse workforce is of the highest importance. This in turn allows the organisaton to gather ideas from people who experience different economies and cultures Although multi-cultural workforces are beneficial to organisations in relation to performance and profitability, they can be very hard to manage. According to (Hill, [92]) the key to managing multi-cultural workforces is the realisation that majority and minority cultures do not always share experiences. To solve this managers can adapt different strategies such as: developing programmes that promote awareness of different cultures, recognise common links among different ethnic groups and express concerns and confusions. (Hill [1992]) believes that if organisations use these strategies, economic benefits will be reaped. This may be easier said than done, (Harisis Kleiner, [1993]) argue that the implementation of such workforces are extremely difficult. They say that not only within American society and businesses but on a world wide scale there are widespread barriers. Such barriers include unwritten rules and double standards for success which are often unknown to women and minorit ies, stereotypes and their associated assumptions and lack of communication about differences. In global organisations it is essential that effective cross cultural training occurs in order to help individuals obtain both the knowledge and the tools needed to reduce misunderstandings and improper actions (Black Mendenhall [1990]) suggest that multi-cultural training provides individuals with greater self confidence and decreased narrow-mindedness about people from diverse cultures. In addition (Barlett and Ghoshal [1990]) also pointed out that establishing a multicultural training programme improved the companys ability to operate more efficiently in different cultural environments. Although many multicultural training programmes are undertaken to enhance cultural diversity they are not always successful. According to (Woods [1992]) a systematic approach should be taken towards training. (Woods [1992]) established a four step cycle: Firstly was to specify certain job task of individuals and assess the needs of the corporate culture. Secondly is the identification of training objectives. Thirdly was the establishment of the proper training content in which the following was used; sensitivity training, cultural awareness and orientation programs. In addition (Cox, [1993]; Gamio Sneed, [1992]; Tung, [1993]) introduced the communication competency program. In the final stage (Milkovich Boudreau [1991]) stated that training programs need to verify whether the training is successful in junior members of staffs performances at work. The cycle used was concerned with the effectiveness of the training, however, (Mendenhall Oddou [1986[ Tung [1981]) found factors that deterred individuals. These included lack of specialised trainers, cost and perceived lack of usefulness. Research carried out by (Gamio Sneed [1992]) found that the deterrence factors are of major importance. Take for instance the catering industry. Mangers in restaurants may blame high staff turnover rates on lack of multi-cultural training, therefore using these rates as the reason to ignore the need for training programs. (Jackson [1991]) believes that heterogeneity among team members contributes to high turnover rates within organisations. Researchers may find that the relationship between cultural diversity and staff turnover is of major importance to all organisations. According to (Kossek Lobel [1996]) the topic of diversity has raised considerable attention over the past decade and is a must for all businesses. In todays business world global leadership is critical not only for global strategies but for ensuring cultural diversity, which involves in depth knowledge from business ethics to cultural motivatiors. Organisations are going global because of slow growth in domestic markets and to capitalise on areas such as marketing, research and development, training, technology, production and many more factors. Organisation are fast realising the importance of diversity. Cultural diversity is the idea that cultural identities should not be ignored but in contrast be maintained and respected. The literature which is going to be presented in this paper will examine four main issues. In my opinion these issues are of major importance for global firms. The first issue is the strategies which global firms adapt follw . Secondly, the concept of Technology and Innovation. This section will in detail provide literature from researchers who believe global firms benefit from cultural diversity in this field. It will examine how technology is changing the business world. Thirdly, the marketing issue. This section will provide relevant literature on how global firms can benefit in relation to standardisation of marketing and how advertising campaigns are perceived by different countries. Lastly, the concept of Staffing and Training. This in my view is one of the most important issues. Global organisations can have all the capital in the world but with out the correct leadership and staff, failure is certain. This topic will in detail will put forward the notion of cross-cultural training and will examine whether or not this is a good idea for global organisations. All the topics mentioned above will have cases for and against by the relevant researchers in each field. I feel this is necessary in order to establish a good understanding of the literature review I am conducting. According to (Tallman Jiatao [1996]) diversity has gone from being a moral/legal issue are both into a business necessity.

Sunday, July 21, 2019

Hand Washing in Disease Prevention

Hand Washing in Disease Prevention Introduction The most frequent way of germ spreading is by people’s hands. Most of the times germs are harmless but sometimes they can also be reason for illnesses like flu, cold and gastroenteritis. Washing your hands thoroughly with soap and warm water is one of most important thing you can do to avoid spreading infections and it helps to protect you, your family members and people around you. Specially every health-care worker or a person who concerned in direct or indirect patient care must be care about hand hygiene and must be able to perform it properly and at the correct time. It helps to prevent health care-associated infections [2]. â€Å"CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)† has estimated that every year almost 2,000,000 patients in the USA get an infection in hospitals, and about 90,000 of these patients die as a result of their infection [1]. History of hand washing Hand washing with soap and water has been used as a measure of personal hygiene for a long time and has been generally implanted in religious and civilizing practices. However the relationship between hand washing and the spread of disease was confirmed only near 200 years ago. Ignaz Semmelweis established that hospital-acquired diseases (HAD) been transmitted through the hands of health care workers by his studies in Austria, Vienna and Oliver Wendell Holmes in Boston USA. In 1847, he was appointed as a house officer in an obstetric clinic at the University of Vienna Allgemeine Krankenhaus. He observed that maternal mortality rates, commonly reasonable to puerperal fever, were considerably higher in mentioned clinic compared with the other. He also identified that doctor as well as medical students usually went straight to the delivery suite after doing autopsies and had an unpleasant odor on their hands regardless of hand washing with soap and water earlier to entering the clinic. He introduced that â€Å"cadaverous particles† from the autopsy room, that transmitted through the hands of students and doctors to the delivery theatre caused the fever. As a result, Semmelweis suggest that hands be cleansed by a chlorinated lime solution before examine each patient and also after leaving the autopsy room. Following the administration of this measure, the mortality rate fell affectedly to 3% in the clinic remained low. Apart from providing the 1st evidence that cleansing thoroughly contaminated hands with an antiseptic agent can decrease nosocomial transmission of germs more significantly than washing hands with plain soap and water, this method includes all the essential elements for successful contamination control interference: â€Å"recognize-explain-act†. Both Holmes and Semmelweis failed to examine a sustainable change in the behavior change of their colleagues’ behavior. In particular, Semmelweis experienced great difficulties in persuading his colleagues and directors of the benefits of this method. In the light of the ethics of social marketing in the present day, his key mistake was that he introduced a system change (administration of the chlorinated lime solution) without explaining the attitudes of his collaborators. In spite of these mistakes, the Semmelweis intervention has teach us many lessons; the â€Å"recognize-explain-act† approach has driven many investiga tors. Semmelweis’s intervention is also a type of epidemiologically obsessed strategies to avoid infection. In 1980s concepts of hand hygiene in health care has been changed. The 1st national hand hygiene guidelines were in print in the 1980s. â€Å"The Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC) in the USA† suggested that whichever antimicrobial soap or a antiseptic agent be used for cleaning hands while leaving the rooms of patients with drug-resistant pathogens in 1996.In recent past the HICPAC guidelines issued alcohol-based hand rubbing.[3] With the time methods of hand washing and chemicals that use are change with research inventions. Normal bacterial flora of the body (1) Axilla, perineum and between the toes (2) Hand, face and trunk (3) Upper arms and legs. Skin with partial occlusion like axilla, perineum and between the toes contain more microorganisms than less occluded areas as legs, arms, and trunk The numbers of bacteria on the skin of a person remains relatively constant; Survival of the bacteria and the extent of colonization probably depend in part upon the contact of skin to a exact environment and partly due to the innate and species-specific bactericidal activity in skin. Most of the microorganisms live in the superficial layers of the stratum, corneum and the upper parts of the hair follicle. Some bacteria are located in the deeper areas of the hair follicles and are away from the reach of normal disinfection procedures. These bacteria are reservoirs for settlement after the surface of bacteria were removed. Staphylococcus epidermidis S. epidermidis is an important microorganism that lives on the skin, and in some areas it makes more than 90% of the resident aerobic flora. Staphylococcus aureus The nasal area and perineum are the most familiar sites for S. aureus colonization. S. aureus is common to the vulva. S. aureus is very often (80% -100%) to the skin of patients with certain dermatological diseases such as atopic dermatitis. Gram-negative bacteria They occupy small portion of the skin flora. Micrococci Micrococci are not as frequent as staphylococci and diphtheroids; on the other hand, they are often present in normal skin. Micrococcus luteus, is the predominant species. Diphtheroids The term refers to diphteroid, a variety of bacteria belonging to the genus Corynebacterium common in the armpit and on open skin. They like to be involved in the pathogenesis of acne. Streptococci ÃŽ ²-hemolytic streptococci, are infrequently seen on normal skin. ÃŽ ±-hemolytic streptococci, exist primarily in the mouth little spread on the skin. Nail Flora Dust particles and other foreign matter can accumulate under the nail. They can carry fungi and bacilli, such as Aspergillus, Penicillium, Cladosporium and Mucor wear.[4] Transmission of pathogens by hand There are two main routs of transmission of pathogens. Airborne transmission Contact transmission Airborne transmission They can be transmitted from the respiratory tract through talking coughing sneezing, from the skin by natural cracking of skin scales, during wound dressing or bed making and by aerosols, also from equipment such as respiratory apparatus and air conditioning plants. Contact transmission The most frequent routes of transmission for infection are by direct contact spread from one to another or by indirect contact spread by unhygienic hands or equipment. Staphylococcal streptococcal sepsis, enteobacterial diarrhea Pseudomonas aeruginosa sepsis are examples for diseases that can be arise due to contact transmission. So hand washing is very important in preventing contact transmission of pathogens and so to avoid spreading diseases. [5] Transmission of health care-associated (HCA) pathogens from one patient to another via health care workers’ (HCWs) hands requires five sequential steps, Micro-organisms to present on the patient’s skin, or have been shed onto dead objects instantly surrounding the patient. Micro-organisms should be transferred to the hands of HCWs. Micro-organisms should be able to survive for at least few minutes on HCWs’ hands. Amount of hand washing or antisepsis of hand by the HCW should be insufficient or entirely omitted, or the substance used for hand hygiene unsuitable. The unhygienic hand or hands of the caregiver must approach into direct contact with another patient or with an object that will come into direct contact with the patient.[3] Steps of hand washing Hands can cleanse with soap, alcohol, water etc. Hand hygiene technique with alcohol-based formulation. There are 8 steps duration is nearly 20-30 seconds, 1st step Apply a full palmed amount of the product in a cupped hand, to cover all surfaces. 2nd step Rub hands palm to palm. 3rd step Right palm over left dorsum with interlaced fingers and vice versa. 4th step Palm to palm with fingers interlaced. 5th step Backs of fingers to opposing palms with fingers interlocked. 6th step Rotational rubbing of left thumb clasped in right palm and vice versa. 7th step Rotational rubbing, backwards and forwards with clasped fingers of right hand in left palm and vice versa. 8th step Dry. 8 Hand Hygiene Technique with Soap and Water. It takes 40-60 seconds there are 10 steps, 1st step- Wet hands with water; apply enough soap to cover all hand surfaces. 2nd step- Rub hands palm to palm. 3rd step- Right palm over left dorsum with interlaced fingers and vice versa. 4th step- Palm to palm with fingers interlaced. 5th step- Backs of fingers to opposing palms with fingers interlocked. 6th step- Rotational rubbing of left thumb clasped in right palm and vice versa. 7th step- Rotational rubbing, backwards and forwards with clasped fingers of right hand in left palm and vice versa. 8th step-Rinse hands with water. 9th step- Dry hands thoroughly with a single use towel. 10th step- Use towel to turn off faucet. [3] Substances that used in hand washing Soap and detergents Reduce barriers to solution and increase solubility is the main action of soap and detergents. [6] Water temperature Hot, soapy water is more successful than cold, soapy water on removing the natural oils on hands which grasp soils and bacteria. [6] Antibacterial soap Antibacterial soaps have been greatly promoted to a health-conscious community. No evidence for that using recommended antiseptics or disinfectants selects for antibiotic-resistant organisms in nature. Although, antibacterial soaps contain general antibacterial chemicals such as Triclosan, which has a wide list of resistant strains of micro-organisms. [6] Solid soap Because of its reusable character, may hold bacteria acquired from previous uses. However as the micro-organisms are rinsed off with the foam, it is implausible that any bacteria are transferred to users of the soap. [6] Hand antiseptic A hand sterilizer or hand antiseptic is a non-aqua-based hand hygiene mediator. Most of them are based on isopropyl alcohol or ethanol formulate which mixed with a thickening agent such as Carbomer , or humectant such as glycerin, or foam for easiness of use and to diminish the drying result of the alcohol. [6] Alcohol-based hand sanitizers They are almost entirely ineffective against Norwalk type viruses, the most general reason for contagious gastroenteritis.[6] Ash or mud This is also a disinfecting agent. WHO suggested ash or sand as option for soap when soap is not available. [6] Importance of hand washing when to wash hands Importance of hand washing Hand washing is like a vaccine that someone can do it yourself, which consist of five simple steps (Wet, Lather, Scrub, Rinse, Dry).Important to reduce the spread of diarrheal and respiratory illness therefore you can stay well. Habitual hand washing, mainly before and after certain activities, is one of the best ways to remove microorganisms, keep away from illnesses, and to reduce the spread of germs [1]. When to wash hands in day today life Always wash your hands before; cooking food or eating, taking or giving medicine, Inserting or removing contact lenses. [8] Also wash your hands after: preparing food, specially raw meat or poultry, changing a diaper or using the toilet, touching an animal or animal toy, leashes or waste, blowing your nose, coughing or sneezing into your hand, caring for a sick or injured person, handling trash, household or garden chemicals, or anything that could be contaminated like cleaning cloth or soiled shoes shaking hands with others. [8] When to wash hands for health care workers Beforeperforming invasive procedures like taking care of particularly susceptible patients such as those who are severely immunocompromised and newborns. [9] Before and after touching wounds traumatic, surgical or related with an invasive device. [9] Aftersituations during which microbial contamination of hands is probable to occur, especially those involving contact with mucous membranes, blood or body fluids, and body secretions or excretions ,touching dead sources that are likely to be contaminated with virulent or epidemiologically significant microorganisms; these sources contain on urine-measuring devices or secretion collecting apparatuses, taking care of an infected patient or one who is likely to be colonized with microorganisms of special clinical or epidemiologic importance, for example multiple-resistant bacteria and between contacts with different patients in high-risk units.[9] Diseases occur due to bad hand hygien Infections that may be transmitted through this route include hepatitis A, salmonellosis, shigellosis, giardiasis, enterovirus, campylobacteriosis and amebiasis. As these diseases are spread through the intake of even the little particles of fecal material, hand washing after using the toilet cannot drop be take easily. â€Å"Influenza,streptococcus, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and the common cold† are diseases spread through indirect contact. As these diseases can be spread indirectly by hands contaminated by respiratory discharges of infected people, illness may be reduced by washing hands after coughing or sneezing and after shaking hands with someone who has been coughing and sneezing. Microorganisms transmitted by one or more body substances such as urine, saliva or other moist body substance include cytomegalovirus, typhoid, staphylococcal organisms, and Epstein-Barr virus. These organisms may be transmitted from person to person or indirectly by contamination of food or inanimate objects such as toys. [10] Alcohol rub sanitizers kill bacteria, multi-drug resistant bacteria (MRSA and VRE), tuberculosis, and some viruses like HIV, herpes, RSV, rhinovirus, vaccinia, and fungus and stop diseases. [9] Thus, hexachlorophene and quaternary ammonium compounds are valuable for prophylaxis of staphylococcal infection but not of infection by Pseudomonas pyocyanea.[12] Antibiotics such as neomycin and bacitracin, which are rarely administered systemically, may be applied as topical antiseptics. They should be used in combinations, or mixed with synthetic agents such as chlorhexidine, in order to minimize the risk of producing resistant strains. [12] Recurrent furunculosis is usually the result of re infection from a carrier site on the patients body. Many nurses become carriers of hospital staphylococci, and the furunculosis which in some hospitals causes a good deal of minor ill-health, is often a consequence of cross-infection. [12] World hand washing day Global hand washing day is October 15. Global hand washing day is an annual global encouragement day devoted to expanding knowledge and understanding about the importance of hand washing with soap as a successful and inexpensive way to prevent diseases. It is an opening to design, test, and reproduce creative ways to encourage society to wash their hands with soap at important times. The day was founded by the Global Public-Private Partnership for Hand washing. [7] Disadvantages of hand washing There are some disadvantages of hand washing, some products that used in hand washing can be affect to generate bad effects in hand washing. Triclosan is an antibacterial agent which also has some antifungal and antiviral properties that contain in hand washing agents, researchers have found that it causes to change hormone balance in animals, also can lead to the development of antibiotic-resistant germs and can be harmful to the immune system.[11] Sodiumlaureth Sulfate (SLS) and triclosan are two commen ingredients contain in hand washes which are responsible for most cases of contact dermatitis. The SLS is a foaming agent used in many personal care products. As well as hand washing products, it contains in shampoo, shower gel, toothpaste; potentially in shortly whatever thing that foams. A small number of people are sensitive to SLS and may lead to skin dryness or contact dermatitis. [11]